Jainism

From The Book of THoTH (Leaves of Wisdom)

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.

Jainism has significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vrata) is the means by which Jains attain moksha, Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul's true nature.

A lay Jain is termed a shravak (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components: monks (साधु), nuns (sadhvi), lay men (श्रावक) and lay women (shravika).

Contents

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Overview of Jain Dharma

Jain philosophy is said to be based upon eternal, universal truths. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached enlightenment or total knowledge (Keval Gnan). Traditionally,in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ or रिषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth followed by Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavira (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).

Jainism teaches that every living thing has an eternal soul, jīva, and is responsible for its actions. It insists that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Anant Gyän, Anant Darshan, Anant Chäritra, and Anant Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws, the interplay of the attributes (gunas) of matter (dravyas) that make it up.

The primary figures of Jainism are Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions: Digambar and Shvetambar. Both believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sansar, and jiva. Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited scripture is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by Umasvati (or Umasvami),the monk-scholar, more than 18 centuries ago.

Compassion for all living beings, along with humans, is central to Jainism. It is the only religion that requires both monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. In regions of India with a strong Jain influence, often the majority of the local non Jain population is also vegetarian. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters, e.g. a bird hospital in Delhi is run by a Jain temple. History suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to a strong Jain influence.

Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan, due to the violence of modern dairy farms.The orthodox Jain diet excludes most root vegetables, as they believe this destroys life unnecessarily. Another reason for refusing root vegetables is to avoid destroying entire plants. If you eat apples, you do not destroy whole trees, but for root vegetables, whole plants are uprooted. Garlic and onions are avoided as these are seen as creating passion, meaning anger, hatred, jealousy. (In the west it is now understood that certain foods create certain moods.) Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset (which is called Chuavihar) and always rise before sunrise.

Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy literally meaning "Non-one-endedness" or "Nonsingular Conclusivity". Anekantavada consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on a topic, object, process, state, or on reality in general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation, Syādvāda. Anekantavada is defined as a multiplicity of views for it stresses looking at things from another's perspective.

Jains are remarkably welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and usually help with inter faith functions. Jain monks, like Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar, actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension.

Jains have been a palpable presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence.

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Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never born, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each upward or downward cycle is divided into six eons (yugas). The present era, a downward movement, is the fifth of these cycles. These ages are known as "Aaro" as "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. These ages have well defined durations of thousands of years.

When this cycle reaches its lowest level, even Jainism will be lost in its entirety. Then, on the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders,Tirthankars (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.

Each enormously long cycle of time always has twenty-four Tirthankars. In our era, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar, Lord Mahavir, in 527 BC. Jains regard him, and all Tirthankars, as reformers who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is based. The title Bhagavan ("Lord"), applied to Mahavir and all other Tirthankars, means Venerable.

The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of our age is called, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). A wandering ascetic teacher, he recalled Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.

Jains believe that reality consists of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of infinite identical spiritual units (life); while ajiva (non-jiva) is matter in any forms or condition under which it exists: time, space, and movement.

Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they are never born or created for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, etc.

Any contact between jiva and ajiva causes the former to suffer and Jains understand that worldly existence inevitably means some suffering. Neither social nor individual reform can totally stop suffering. Every human has jiva which suffers because of its contact with ajiva. To avoid suffering, the jiva must leave the four gatis (stages) of Human Life, Heavenly Bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish Life, and Hell, by never forgetting the ultimate aim, by practising Jainism continuously and thus attain liberation,

Karma and transmigration keep jiva locked in ajiva. Liberation from the human condition is difficult. Jiva continues to suffer during its infinite reincarnations. Jains believe that every action, good or evil, opens up sense channels (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which invisible karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of its next reincarnation.

The consequence of evil actions is heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower existential level. Good deeds, on the other hand, lead to light karma, allowing jiva to rise to a higher level in its next life, where there is less suffering. However, good deeds alone can never lead to liberation.

The way to moksh (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma keeps jiva chained in an endless series of lifetimes in which it suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus liberation means release from karma, its annihilation and avoidance of new karma.

Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it, jiva will rise free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the highest state in the universe,Siddhashila, where jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, aloneness and liberation. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from worldly involvement as much as possible, and close the senses and the mind to prevent karma. Such eternal liberation by freeing Jiva from Pudgala (ajiva), so no new reincarnation occurs, is Moksh. Ignorance (ajñāna) causes attachment, while true knowledge (keval jñāna)leads to liberation.

S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology thus:

"In Jain tradition, the first teacher, Rishabh, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had appeared, a teacher/Tirthankara was needed to help people cope with life. In the fourth period, evil proliferated so much that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve moksh. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live less than 125 years and the sixth epoch will be worse. 'A man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to that of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the upward cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wish fullfilling trees, his height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate, with Avasarpini followed by Usarpini in a neverending cycle." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)
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Beliefs and practices

Jain monks practise strict asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, the laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible in this lifetime. Due to strict Jain ethics, the laity choose professions and livelihoods that revere and protect life and do not involve violence to living beings.

Jains believe that Devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation. This must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult action of removing karma. Their effort to attain the exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.

The Jain ethical code is taken very seriously. Five vows are followed by both the laity and monks/nuns. These are:

  1. Nonviolence (ahimsa, or ahinsa)
  2. Truth (satya)
  3. Non-stealing (asteya)
  4. Chastity (brahma-charya)
  5. Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)

For laypersons, 'chastity' means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being vegetarian and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word and deed, towards humans and every living creature. While performing holy deeds, Jains wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid spittle falling on texts or revered images.

Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will towards others and practise forgiveness. They believe that Atma can lead one to becoming Parmatma and this must come from one's inner self; none can lead another on a path but can only show the way to the path. Jains know that anger towards another is one's biggest enemy and believe in “Jeeyo aur jeene do” (live and let others live).

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by this Jain emphasis on peaceful, protective living and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

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Jain Symbols

Jains have some core symbols. One symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastik.

Major Jain symbols include:

  • 24 Lanchhanas for Tirthankaras.
  • The Ashta-mangalas.
  • Om.
  • Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols.
  • A Tirthankar's mother dreams.
  • Dharma-chakra and Siddha-chakra.
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Jain fasting

Fasting is very common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains fast at special times during the year, during festivals and on holy days. However, a Jain may fast at any time, sometimes if s/he feels some error has been committed. The monsoon period (in India) is a time of fasting.

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The aim of fasting

Monks, nuns and laity fast as penance. Fasting purifies the body and the mind, reminding one of Mahavir's emphasis on renunciation and asceticism. Mahavir spent months fasting and contemplating. It is not sufficient for a Jain simply to stop eating when fasting, s/he must also stop wanting to eat. Control over one's mind is a major goal. If one continue to desire food, the fast is pointless.

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Types of fast

There are several types of fasts:

  • Complete fasting: No food or water for a period.
  • Partial fasting: eating less than you desire and to simply avoid hunger.
  • Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of food items eaten.
  • Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods.
  • Great fasts: Some monks fast for months at a time, following Mahavir, who fasted for over 6 months.
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Different types of fast

  • Choviharo Upavasa - To give up food and water for the whole day.
  • Upavas - To give up only food for the whole day.
  • Digamber Upvas - One may drink water only once a day, before sunset.
  • Shwetamber Upvas - One may drink water, provided this is done before sunset.
  • Ekasan - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as desired between sunrise and sunset.
  • Beasan - To eat two meals a day, (one meal per sitting) and drink water any times between sunrise and sunset.
  • Ayambil: Eating food once in one sitting. The food is spice free and boiled or cooked, without milk, curds, ghee, oil, or green/raw vegetables.
  • Chaththa - To give up both food and water or only food continuously for two days.
  • Aththama - To give up food and water or only food continuously for three whole days.
  • Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
  • Masaksamana - To give up food and water or only food continuously for a whole month.
  • Santhara - To give up food and water entirely as voluntary death
  • Navkarsi: Food and water is consumed forty-eight (48) minutes after sunrise. For the orthodox, brushing teeth and rinsing one's mouth must be done after sunrise.
  • Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
  • Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
  • Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
  • Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
  • Tivihar: After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may take only water until sunrise the next day. Many Jains follow this type of fasting on daily basis.
  • Navapad oli - During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. These ayambils are sometimes restricted to one kind of grain per day.

Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.

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Jain literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka, etc), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane, etc.). See Jain literature for more details. Tatvarth Sutra, Padma Puran (Rama Charitra), JinPravachanRahasya-Kosh, Chhahdhala and Shravakachars such as Ratnakarandak Sharavakachar and ShravakDharmaPrakash are available for free download at http://www.AtmaDharma.com

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Jain worship and rituals

(written by Swapna Vora)

Jains have built temples where Tirthankar images are venerated. Jain rituals may be elaborate, for symbolic objects are offered and Tirthankars praised with chants. But some Jain sects refuse to enter temples or venerate images and only consider them as guides. The Sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains, such as the Terapanthi Jains, regard holy statues or temples as totally unnecessary. Every day Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.

Jain rituals include:

  • Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha
  • Pratikraman
  • Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.

Jain marriage ceremonies and family rites are usually variations of orthodox Hindu rituals.

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Digambar and Shvetambar traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Shvetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect.

The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes because they believe clothes are like all other possessions thereby increasing desire to material things, which needs to be removed. The Shvetambar monks wear white clothes because they believe there is nothing in Jain religious books to condemn the wearing of clothes. The different points of view are caused by different interpretations of similar holy books. The sadhvis (lady religious persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's literature.

There are also many other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha,while Shvetambars believe that women can attain liberation. Mahavir was not married while Swtambar believe that Mahavir was married.

Some historians believe that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Shvetambar tradition.

Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Shvetambaras.

Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanth, Deravasi, and Bisapantha. Some of these can be divided into murtipujak (idol worshipper) and not murtipujak. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.

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Geographical spread and influence

It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism.

The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab.

It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad.

There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles.

Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Afghanistan.

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

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Jain contributions to Indian culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable.

The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.

Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions and garlic.

According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages.

  • In Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
  • Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
  • Several of the Tamil classics are written by Jain authors or have Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
  • Practically all of the known texts of the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
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Jainism and Indian archaeology

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)

Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later periods.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

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Holy sites

There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.

  • Shikharji also know as Parasnathji located in Giridih district in the Jharkhand state is held to be the most sacred place of the Jains all over India. Parasnath Hill is about 4481 feet high. Parasnath Hill is Jerusalem to the Jains as, besides Mahavira, Twenty Tirthankaras had attained Nirvana at this hill.GoogleEarthLocation
  • Shravanabelagola, monumental statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara in Hassan District, Karnataka.
  • Dilwara Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
  • Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in Ranakpur, Rajasthan.
  • Palitana, most visited Jain temple in Gujarat.
  • Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in Barwani District, Madhya Pradesh.
  • Gwalior's fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
  • Bajrangarh, Atisaya-kshetra in Guna district in Madhya Pradesh, India
  • Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra having 63 temples, famous for beautiful statue of Bade Baba in Damoh district in Madhya Pradesh, India

There is also one temple in the United States that is considered to be a pilgrimage place. Siddhachalam is located in New Jersey.

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Jain temples in the West

Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html

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Holy days

  • Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, to observe, 10/8 important principles to follow.
  • Mahavir Jayanti, birthday of Lord Mahavir.
  • Diwali, day of attaining nirvana by Lord Mahavir.
  • Kshamavaani, The day of asking forgiveness from all.
  • Shawani Hirshnadi, The celebration of Hirsh's triumph over the forces of evil.

The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.

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Jainism and other religions

South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:

  • Jainism and Hinduism
  • Jainism and Buddhism
  • Jainism and Sikhism

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:

  • Jainism and Christianity
  • Jainism and Judaism
  • Jainism and Islam
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See also

  • List of Jains
  • Veganism
  • American Jainism
  • Jain community
    • Tamil Jains
    • Tulu Jains
    • Jainism in Delhi
    • Jainism in Gujarat
    • Jainism in Rajasthan
    • Jains of Maharashtra
    • Jainism in Mumbai
  • Jainism Portal at Wikipedia
  • Jains in India according to 2001 census
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References

Introductory:

  • Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
  • Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.

Detailed Introduction:

  • Shah, Natubhai, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  • Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
  • Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
  • Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
  • Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
  • The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Specialized sources:

  • Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
  • Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
  • Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
  • Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
  • Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
  • Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
  • Cort, John, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
  • Vallely, Anne, Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001.
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External links


--Angel 17:00, 11 June 2006 (CDT)

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